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Political ethics
Political ethics (also known as political morality or public ethics) is the practice of making moral judgements about political action and political agents.〔Thompson, Dennis F. “Political Ethics.” ''International Encyclopedia of Ethics'', ed. Hugh LaFollette (Blackwell Publishing, 2012).〕 It covers two areas. The first is the ethics of process (or the ethics of office), which deals with public officials and the methods they use.〔Hampshire, Stuart (ed.). ''Public and Private Morality'' (Cambridge University Press, 1978). ISBN 9780521293525; and Thompson, Dennis F. ''Political Ethics and Public Office'' (Harvard University Press, 1987). ISBN 9780674686069〕 The second area, the ethics of policy (or ethics and public policy) concerns judgments about policies and laws.〔Gutmann, Amy, and Dennis Thompson. ''Ethics and Politics: Cases and Comments'', 4th edition (Nelson-Hall, 2006). ISBN 978-0534626457; Bluhm, William T., and Robert A. Heineman. ''Ethics and Public Policy: Method and Cases'' (Prentice Hall, 2007). ISBN 978-0131893436; and Wolff, Jonathan. ''Ethics and Public Policy: A Philosophical Inquiry'' (Routledge, 2011). ISBN 978-0-415-66853-8〕
==Ethics of process==
The Italian Niccolò Machiavelli is heralded as the founding father of the political ethics.〔Machiavelli, Niccolò. ''The Prince and the Discourses'' (McGraw Hill, 1950). ISBN 978-0075535775.〕 He believed that a political leader may be required to commit acts that would be wrong if done by private. In contemporary democracies, this idea has been reframed as the problem of dirty hands, described most influentially by Michael Walzer, who argues that the problem creates a paradox: the politician must sometimes do “wrong to do right”.〔Walzer, Michael. “Political Action: The Problem of Dirty Hands,” ''Philosophy & Public Affairs'' 2 (1973), pp. 160-80.〕 The politician uses violence to prevent greater violence, but his act is still wrong even if justified. Walzer’s view has been criticized.〔Paul, Rynard, and David P. Shugarman (eds.). ''Cruelty & Deception: The Controversy over Dirty Hands in Politics'' (Broadview Press, 2000). ISBN 978-1864031072〕 Some critics object that either the politician is justified or not. If justified, there is nothing wrong, though he may feel guilty. Others say that some of the acts of violence that Walzer would allow are never justified, no matter what the ends. Dennis Thompson has argued that in a democracy citizens should hold the leader responsible, and therefore if the act is justified their hands are dirty too.〔Thompson, Dennis F. “Democratic Dirty Hands,” in ''Political Ethics and Public Office'' (Harvard University Press, 1987), pp. 11-39. ISBN 9780674686069〕 He also shows that in large political organizations it is often not possible to tell who is actually responsible for the outcomes—a problem known as the problem of many hands.〔Thompson, Dennis F. “The Problem of Many Hands,” in ''Restoring Responsibility: Ethics in Government, Business and Healthcare'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 11-32. ISBN 9780521547222〕
Political ethics not only permits leaders to do things that would be wrong in private life, but also requires them to meet higher standards than would be necessary in private life. They may, for example, have less of a right of privacy than do ordinary citizens, and no right to use their office for personal profit. The major issues here concern conflict of interest.〔Stark, Andrew. ''Conflict of Interest in American Public Life''. (Harvard University Press, 2003). ISBN 9780674012134〕
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